Evaluation of Height Changes in Uneven-Aged Spruce–Fir–Beech Forest with Freely Available Nationwide Lidar and Aerial Photogrammetry Data

Abstract

Tree height and vertical forest structure are important attributes in forestry, but their traditional measurement or assessment in the field is expensive, time-consuming, and often inaccurate. One of the main advantages of using remote sensing data to estimate vertical forest structure is the ability to obtain accurate data for larger areas in a more time- and cost-efficient manner. Temporal changes are also important for estimating and analysing tree heights, and in many countries, national airborne laser scanning (ALS) surveys have been conducted either only once or at specific, longer intervals, whereas aerial surveys are more often arranged in cycles with shorter intervals. In this study, we reviewed all freely available national airborne remote sensing data describing three-dimensional forest structures in Slovenia and compared them with traditional field measurements in an area dominated by uneven-aged forests. The comparison of ALS and digital aerial photogrammetry (DAP) data revealed that freely available national ALS data provide better estimates of dominant forest heights, vertical structural diversity, and their changes compared to cyclic DAP data, but they are still useful due to their temporally dense data. Up-to-date data are very important for forest management and the study of forest resilience and resistance to disturbance. Based on field measurements (2013 and 2023) and all remote sensing data, dominant and maximum heights are statistically significantly higher in uneven-aged forests than in mature, even-aged forests. Canopy height diversity (CHD) information, derived from lidar ALS and DAP data, has also proven to be suitable for distinguishing between even-aged and uneven-aged forests. The CHDALS 2023 was 1.64, and the CHDCAS 2022 was 1.38 in uneven-aged stands, which were statistically significantly higher than in even-aged forest stands.

Plant phenotyping relevance

ALSと航空写真測量による樹高・森林垂直構造・樹冠高多様性の推定を現地測定と比較検証しており、植物（森林）の形態形質測定が研究の中心です。

Code and data availability

The paper's own field measurements (2013, 2023) and derived analysis data are not publicly deposited; the Data Availability Statement says raw data are available only upon reasonable request from the corresponding author. The freely available national ALS/DAP source data are public via the Slovenian national remote-sns