Machine Learning-Based Analysis of Forest Vertical Structure Dynamics Using Multi-Temporal UAV Photogrammetry and Geomorphometric Indicators

Abstract

Monitoring multi-temporal forest vertical structure in anthropogenically disturbed and topographically complex landscapes remains a major challenge, particularly when low-cost remote sensing technologies are used. This study aims to quantify forest vertical structure change and to determine whether these changes are systematically regulated by geomorphometric controls rather than occurring randomly. A multi-temporal unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) photogrammetry workflow based on Structure from Motion (SfM) was applied to generate annual Canopy Height Models (CHMs) for 2023, 2024, and 2025. To ensure temporal robustness, the 95th percentile of canopy height (P95) was adopted as the primary structural metric, and vertical change was quantified using a difference-based indicator (ΔP95). Random Forest (RF) regression was used to model the relationship between canopy height change and terrain-derived predictors, including slope, aspect, and Topographic Wetness Index (TWI). The results reveal a consistent vertical growth signal across the study area, with a mean ΔP95 increase of 0.65 m over the monitoring period, clearly exceeding the photogrammetric vertical error (RMSE = 0.082 m). Positive canopy height changes are concentrated on moisture-favored, moderately sloping and north-facing terrain, whereas negative changes (down to −1.20 m) are mainly associated with mining-disturbed and steep surfaces. The RF model achieved high explanatory performance (training R2 = 0.919) and identified aspect (20%), slope (18%), and TWI (18%) as the dominant controls on forest vertical dynamics. These findings demonstrate that forest vertical structure evolution in disturbed landscapes is not stochastic but is systematically governed by terrain-driven hydro-morphological and microclimatic conditions. The main contribution of this study is the development of an interpretable, change-focused UAV–machine learning framework that moves beyond single-epoch canopy height estimation and enables process-oriented analysis of terrain–vegetation interactions. The proposed approach provides a cost-effective and transferable tool for forest monitoring and post-mining restoration planning in complex terrain settings.

Plant phenotyping relevance

UAV-SfMによる樹冠高モデルと機械学習を組み合わせ、森林の垂直構造変化という植物形質を定量化する再利用可能な手法を開発・適用しており、フェノタイピング手法が中心である。

Code and data availability

The supplied blocks describe UAV photogrammetric surveys (2023–2025), CHM/DTM products, and RF modeling, but contain no data availability statement, public repository deposit, or author URL for the paper's imagery, point clouds, derived surface models, or analysis code. Only commercial/open-source software (Agisoft Met

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